Egg Donor in the USA: Costs, Requirements, Screening, and How to Find a Trusted Match

In the USA, egg donation is widely available and highly regulated from a medical and laboratory perspective, although the legal and compensation rules are not uniform across every state. Intended parents may work with a fertility clinic’s in-house donor program, an egg donor agency, a frozen egg bank, or a known donor such as a friend or relative. Each route has different costs, timelines, privacy options, and levels of choice.

This guide explains how egg donation works in the United States, what it typically costs, what requirements donors must meet, how screening is performed, and how intended parents can find a trusted match while protecting their emotional, medical, and legal interests.

What Is an Egg Donor?

An egg donor is a person who provides oocytes, commonly called eggs, for use in assisted reproduction. The donated eggs are fertilized with sperm in a fertility laboratory through in vitro fertilization, or IVF. The resulting embryos may be transferred to the uterus of an intended mother, a gestational carrier, or frozen for future use.

Egg donation may be considered when a person cannot use their own eggs or when using donor eggs offers a significantly better chance of pregnancy. Common reasons include diminished ovarian reserve, advanced maternal age, premature ovarian insufficiency, prior cancer treatment, failed IVF cycles, genetic disease risk, same-sex male family building with a gestational carrier, and single intended fathers pursuing parenthood through surrogacy.

In most egg donation arrangements in the USA, the donor does not become a legal parent of any child born from the donation. Parentage is addressed through legal contracts and, when applicable, court orders or state-specific legal procedures. Because laws vary, independent reproductive law counsel is strongly recommended for both intended parents and the donor.

Main Types of Egg Donation in the USA

Intended parents generally choose among four main pathways: fresh donor eggs through an agency or clinic, frozen donor eggs from an egg bank, a known donor, or a clinic-recruited donor. The right choice depends on your budget, timeline, need for personal information, desire for future contact, and comfort with medical uncertainty.

How Much Does an Egg Donor Cost in the USA?

The cost of using an egg donor in the United States varies widely. A donor egg IVF journey may cost from approximately $25,000 to more than $70,000, depending on whether the eggs are frozen or fresh, whether an agency is involved, the donor’s compensation, the clinic’s IVF fees, medication costs, legal fees, genetic testing, travel, and whether embryo testing is performed. If a gestational carrier is also needed, the total family-building cost can be much higher.

Frozen donor eggs are often presented as the more predictable or lower-cost option because the donor has already completed the retrieval. Fresh donor cycles may offer the potential for more eggs and embryos, but they usually involve higher coordination costs, donor medication, monitoring, compensation, legal fees, and possible travel expenses.

One of the most important budgeting tips is to ask whether a quoted price is “all-inclusive” or only a base fee. Some programs advertise a package price but exclude medications, donor insurance, legal work, embryo freezing, annual storage, genetic testing, anesthesia, monitoring outside the clinic, or repeat transfer costs. Before signing, request a written fee schedule that identifies what is included, what is optional, and what happens financially if the donor is disqualified, cancels, responds poorly to medication, or retrieves fewer eggs than expected.

Why Costs Differ So Much

Egg donor costs differ because no two cycles are exactly alike. A first-time donor living near your clinic may cost less than a donor who must fly across the country and take time off work. A frozen egg bank may offer a set lot of six to eight mature eggs, while a fresh donor may produce a larger or smaller number depending on her ovarian response. A clinic in a major coastal city may charge more than a clinic in a lower-cost region. Some intended parents also choose advanced genetic testing, embryo banking, or multiple donor egg lots to increase the chance of having more than one child genetically related to the same donor.

Another factor is donor compensation. In the United States, egg donors are generally compensated for their time, effort, inconvenience, and physical commitment, not for the eggs themselves as a commodity. Ethical programs avoid coercive compensation and follow professional guidance designed to protect donor autonomy. Extremely high compensation promises should prompt careful review, especially if they seem to target donors primarily for specific physical traits or academic backgrounds rather than balanced medical suitability.

Basic Egg Donor Requirements in the USA

Egg donor requirements vary by clinic, agency, and egg bank, but most programs use similar criteria to protect donor safety and maximize the chance of a successful IVF outcome. Donors are usually between 21 and 34 years old, with many clinics preferring donors in their twenties. The donor should be in good general health, have a healthy body mass index, no significant untreated medical or psychiatric conditions, and no substance misuse. A donor must also be willing to undergo medical, genetic, infectious disease, and psychological screening.

Many programs require donors to provide detailed personal and family medical history, including information about parents, siblings, grandparents, and sometimes aunts, uncles, and cousins. The goal is not to find a “perfect” family history, because almost every family has some medical risk, but to identify conditions that could increase risk for offspring or raise concerns about donor suitability.

Some programs also look for donors who are reliable, communicative, and able to attend frequent monitoring appointments. During a fresh donation cycle, the donor may need several early-morning ultrasound and bloodwork visits over 10 to 14 days, followed by an egg retrieval under sedation. Reliability is not a minor detail; missed appointments or medication errors can compromise the cycle.

Medical Screening for Egg Donors

Medical screening begins with a thorough health history and physical evaluation. The clinic typically reviews the donor’s menstrual history, prior pregnancies or fertility history if applicable, surgeries, medications, allergies, chronic illnesses, and history of sexually transmitted infections. Donors also undergo ovarian reserve testing, often including anti-Müllerian hormone, or AMH, an antral follicle count by ultrasound, and sometimes day-3 follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol levels.

The donor’s ovaries are evaluated by transvaginal ultrasound to estimate the number of follicles likely to respond to stimulation. A good ovarian reserve does not guarantee pregnancy, but it helps the physician design a stimulation protocol and decide whether the donor is likely to provide an adequate egg yield. If a donor has a very low antral follicle count or unexpectedly low AMH for her age, the clinic may recommend against proceeding.

Donors are also screened for infectious diseases according to federal requirements and clinic protocols. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products, including donor reproductive tissue. Clinics must follow rules for donor eligibility, communicable disease risk assessment, and laboratory testing. Testing commonly includes HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and other infections as required or clinically indicated. Some tests are performed close to the time of retrieval because infectious status must reflect the donation period.

Clinics may also evaluate blood type, Rh factor, immunity to certain infections, complete blood count, thyroid function, and other general health markers. The exact panel differs by clinic. In known donor arrangements, the donor still needs formal medical screening. Personal trust does not replace infectious disease testing, genetic review, or legal documentation.

Genetic Screening: What Intended Parents Should Understand

Genetic screening is a central part of donor selection. Most egg donors undergo expanded carrier screening, which looks for variants associated with recessive or X-linked genetic conditions. A donor may be a carrier for one or more conditions and still be a suitable donor. Carrier status is common and usually does not mean the donor is unhealthy. The key question is whether the sperm provider is a carrier for the same recessive condition or carries a variant that creates a significant reproductive risk when combined with the donor’s genetics.

For example, if an egg donor is a carrier for cystic fibrosis and the sperm provider is not, the chance of a child being affected by cystic fibrosis is greatly reduced, though the child may be a carrier. If both the donor and sperm provider carry pathogenic variants in the same recessive gene, the risk of an affected child may be significant, and the couple may need to consider a different donor, preimplantation genetic testing for monogenic disease, or genetic counseling.

A genetic counselor can help intended parents interpret results accurately. This is especially important because expanded panels vary by laboratory, not every variant is detectable, and “negative” does not mean zero risk. Ethnic background also matters because some conditions are more common in certain populations, but modern expanded panels are increasingly pan-ethnic and may identify risks regardless of reported ancestry.

Intended parents should ask when the donor’s genetic screening was completed, which panel was used, whether the donor’s results can be reviewed by the clinic or genetic counselor, and whether the sperm provider should be tested on the same or a compatible panel. If using frozen eggs, ask whether the egg bank has updated genetic information and whether the donor can be contacted for additional testing if needed.

Psychological Screening and Counseling

Egg donation is not only a medical procedure; it is also an emotional and ethical decision. Psychological screening helps confirm that the donor understands the process, risks, possible outcomes, and future implications. A mental health professional may discuss the donor’s motivation, support system, stress level, personal boundaries, understanding of anonymity or future contact, and ability to comply with the cycle.

Standardized psychological testing may be used, but the clinical interview is equally important. The evaluator looks for untreated mental health conditions, coercion, unrealistic expectations, or difficulty understanding the long-term meaning of genetic donation. A history of anxiety, depression, or therapy does not automatically disqualify a donor; the key concern is stability, insight, and whether donation is medically and emotionally appropriate at this time.

Intended parents may also benefit from counseling. Choosing donor eggs can bring grief, relief, excitement, uncertainty, and questions about disclosure to future children. Many professionals now encourage openness with donor-conceived children in age-appropriate ways. Counseling can help intended parents develop language for discussing donor conception, understand identity-related questions, and make informed choices about anonymous, open, or identity-release donation.

Anonymous, Open, and Identity-Release Donation

Egg donation in the USA may be anonymous, semi-open, open, or identity-release. In an anonymous arrangement, the intended parents and donor do not exchange identifying information. In a semi-open arrangement, communication may occur through an agency or secure platform without direct identity disclosure. In an open arrangement, the parties may know each other’s identities and agree on a level of future communication. Identity-release donation means the child may be able to access the donor’s identity when reaching a certain age, often adulthood, depending on the program and contract.

The meaning of “anonymous” has changed in the age of consumer DNA testing and online genealogy databases. Even if a donor and intended parents choose anonymity, future identification may be possible through genetic relatives who use commercial DNA platforms. Ethical programs discuss this reality with donors and intended parents so everyone understands that absolute lifelong anonymity can no longer be guaranteed.

When choosing the level of openness, intended parents should consider the future child’s interests, the donor’s comfort, family privacy, medical updates, and cultural values. Some families prefer a donor who is open to future contact or medical updates because it may benefit the child later. Others prefer a more private arrangement. There is no single correct choice, but there should be clarity, documentation, and realistic expectations.

How the Egg Donation Process Works Step by Step

1. Initial consultation: Intended parents meet with a fertility clinic to discuss diagnosis, treatment plan, sperm source, uterus or gestational carrier needs, and donor egg options.
2. Donor search: The family reviews donor profiles through a clinic, agency, or egg bank. Profiles may include photos, education, interests, medical history, family history, personality notes, and genetic screening status.
3. Preliminary match: Intended parents reserve or select a donor. In a fresh cycle, the donor may still need updated screening and legal clearance before starting.
4. Screening and approval: The donor completes medical, genetic, infectious disease, and psychological screening. The clinic confirms donor suitability.
5. Legal contracts: Intended parents and donor sign an egg donation agreement with independent attorneys. The contract addresses rights, responsibilities, compensation, confidentiality, future contact, unused embryos, and medical decision-making.
6. Cycle preparation: In a fresh cycle, the donor uses injectable fertility medications to stimulate the ovaries. Monitoring visits track follicle growth and hormone levels.
7. Egg retrieval: Eggs are retrieved transvaginally under ultrasound guidance, usually with sedation. The procedure is typically brief, but recovery and follow-up are important.
8. Fertilization and embryo culture: Eggs are fertilized with sperm using conventional insemination or intracytoplasmic sperm injection, known as ICSI. Embryos grow in the laboratory for several days.
9. Embryo transfer or freezing: A selected embryo may be transferred fresh or frozen for later transfer. Many clinics now freeze embryos and transfer in a later cycle to optimize uterine preparation.
10. Pregnancy test and follow-up: A blood pregnancy test is performed after transfer. Remaining embryos may be stored for future attempts or sibling planning.

Fresh Donor Eggs Versus Frozen Donor Eggs

Fresh donor eggs and frozen donor eggs can both lead to successful pregnancies, but they differ in logistics and expectations. With fresh donation, the donor’s cycle is coordinated with fertilization and sometimes with the recipient’s uterine preparation. Fresh cycles may produce more eggs than a frozen lot, which can be helpful for families who want multiple embryos or future siblings. However, fresh cycles are less predictable because the donor must pass screening, respond well to medication, and complete the retrieval as planned.

Frozen eggs are already retrieved and available, so the timeline can be shorter. Egg banks often sell eggs in lots, such as six, eight, or more mature eggs. Some banks offer blastocyst or pregnancy guarantees, but these guarantees vary and may have strict conditions. The main limitation is that a single frozen lot may produce fewer embryos than a robust fresh cycle, and additional eggs from the same donor may not be available later.

When comparing options, ask about survival rates after thaw, fertilization rates, blastocyst development rates, embryo transfer outcomes, and what guarantee, if any, applies. Also ask whether the clinic has experience thawing eggs from that specific bank. Laboratory skill matters greatly in frozen egg outcomes.

How to Read an Egg Donor Profile

Donor profiles can be emotionally powerful. Many intended parents naturally look first at photos, education, talents, or shared interests. Those details can matter, but a trusted match should be evaluated in a balanced way. Medical suitability, family history, genetic compatibility, psychological readiness, and reliability are more important than superficial perfection.

A strong donor profile should include clear demographic information, personal and family medical history, reproductive history if any, education or occupation, motivation for donating, lifestyle habits, physical characteristics, childhood and adult photos if available, genetic screening status, and whether the donor has donated before. If the donor has prior cycles, ask about the number of eggs retrieved, mature eggs, fertilization rate, blastocyst rate, pregnancy outcomes if known, and whether any complications occurred.

Be cautious about overvaluing a donor’s academic achievements or appearance as if they guarantee a child’s traits. Genetics is complex, and a child is shaped by both biology and environment. The healthiest approach is to look for a donor who is medically appropriate, emotionally informed, legally protected, and aligned with your family’s values.

How to Find a Trusted Egg Donor Match

Finding a trusted match begins with choosing trusted professionals. Work with a fertility clinic that has strong laboratory outcomes, transparent reporting, clear donor screening protocols, and experience with third-party reproduction. If using an agency, choose one that is established, responsive, ethically grounded, and willing to explain fees and policies in writing. Membership in professional organizations, experienced leadership, and positive physician referrals can be helpful, but they should not replace your own due diligence.

Ask the clinic how donors are screened, who reviews medical histories, whether genetic counseling is available, and how donor complications are handled. Ask the agency how it verifies profile information, whether donors are interviewed in person or virtually, what happens if a donor withdraws, and whether fees are refundable or transferable. If using an egg bank, ask about egg thaw survival guarantees, replacement policies, donor recontact options, and how medical updates are communicated.

It is also wise to define your priorities before searching. Some intended parents prioritize shared ethnicity, physical resemblance, education, artistic interests, athletic background, personality, or openness to future contact. Others prioritize prior successful donation cycles, genetic compatibility, or availability for a fast timeline. Ranking your top priorities can prevent decision fatigue and help you avoid endlessly searching for an impossible “perfect” donor.

Questions to Ask Before Choosing an Egg Donor

• Has the donor completed medical, infectious disease, genetic, and psychological screening?
• If screening is not complete, what happens if the donor is disqualified?
• Has the donor donated before? If yes, what were the outcomes?
• What genetic carrier panel was used, and should the sperm provider be tested on a matching panel?
• Is the donor willing to provide future medical updates?
• Is the arrangement anonymous, semi-open, open, or identity-release?
• Who pays for donor travel, lost wages, childcare, insurance, and complications?
• What are the refund, rematch, or replacement policies?
• Does the donor have independent legal counsel?
• How are unused embryos handled under the contract?
• What information will be available to the future child?
• How many families or live births are permitted from this donor, if the program has limits?

Legal Considerations in U.S. Egg Donation

Legal agreements are essential in egg donation. The contract should state that the donor relinquishes any parental rights or responsibilities and that the intended parents will be the legal parents of any child born from the embryos. It should also address compensation, expense reimbursement, medical risks, confidentiality, contact preferences, control of eggs and embryos, genetic testing, disclosure of health information, and what happens if the cycle is canceled.

Both sides should have separate attorneys who understand assisted reproduction law. A shared attorney is generally not appropriate because the donor and intended parents have different interests. The donor’s attorney helps confirm that she understands the agreement and is not being pressured. The intended parents’ attorney protects parentage and embryo disposition interests.

State law matters. Some states have detailed statutes supporting donor conception and parentage; others rely more on contracts and case law. If a gestational carrier is involved, legal complexity increases. International intended parents also need advice about immigration, citizenship, birth certificates, and travel documentation. A reputable clinic or agency should not encourage you to skip legal counsel to save money.

Donor Safety and Medical Risks

Egg donation is generally considered safe when performed by experienced fertility specialists, but it is not risk-free. Donors take injectable medications to stimulate multiple follicles. Possible side effects include bloating, mood changes, headaches, bruising at injection sites, abdominal discomfort, and fatigue. A more serious but uncommon complication is ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, or OHSS, in which the ovaries become enlarged and fluid shifts in the body. Modern protocols, careful monitoring, and appropriate trigger medications have reduced the risk of severe OHSS.

The retrieval procedure also carries small risks related to sedation, bleeding, infection, and injury to nearby structures. Ethical programs explain these risks clearly and provide instructions for aftercare. Intended parents should care about donor safety not only because it is ethically right, but also because a well-managed donor cycle is more likely to be medically successful.

Donor insurance or complication coverage may be required or recommended. This can help cover medical care if the donor experiences complications related to the donation cycle. Ask whether such coverage is included in the program fee or billed separately.

Success Rates with Donor Eggs

Donor egg IVF often has higher success rates than IVF using eggs from older patients because egg age is one of the strongest predictors of embryo chromosomal normality and implantation potential. Since donors are usually young and carefully screened, donor egg cycles can offer a strong chance of pregnancy. However, success is never guaranteed.

Outcomes depend on egg quality, sperm quality, laboratory performance, embryo development, uterine health, embryo transfer technique, and whether a gestational carrier is involved. If embryos are tested with PGT-A, the result may help identify embryos with the correct number of chromosomes, but testing does not guarantee implantation or a healthy birth. Intended parents should review clinic-specific outcomes and ask how success rates are calculated. A live birth rate is more meaningful than a positive pregnancy test rate.

Red Flags When Choosing an Egg Donor Agency, Bank, or Clinic

• Unclear pricing, hidden fees, or pressure to pay quickly before receiving written policies.
• Promises of guaranteed success without explaining medical limitations.
• No requirement for psychological screening or independent legal counsel.
• Reluctance to share screening protocols or clinic coordination details.
• Profiles that appear exaggerated, unverifiable, or focused almost entirely on appearance.
• No clear policy if the donor withdraws, fails screening, or has a poor response.
• High-pressure sales language that minimizes donor medical risks.
• Poor communication, delayed responses, or inconsistent answers from staff.
• No transparent process for medical updates after donation.
• Encouragement to proceed with a known donor without counseling or legal agreements.

Known Egg Donors: Special Considerations

Using a known donor can be meaningful and cost-effective, but it requires careful preparation. A sister, cousin, or friend may offer genetic or emotional continuity, yet the relationship can become complicated if expectations are not discussed in advance. Questions may arise about boundaries, future contact, family roles, disclosure to the child, and how relatives will describe the donor’s role.

Known donors must undergo the same medical, infectious disease, genetic, and psychological screening as anonymous donors. Counseling is especially important because the donor will likely remain in the family’s life. Legal agreements should be detailed even when everyone trusts each other. In fact, trust is one reason to put expectations in writing: a clear agreement protects the relationship by preventing misunderstandings.

Intended parents should discuss whether the child will know the donor’s identity, what the donor will be called, whether the donor may attend milestones, and how family members will talk about conception. These conversations may feel awkward, but they are far easier before pregnancy than after the child is born.

Insurance and Financing

Insurance coverage for donor egg IVF in the USA is inconsistent. Some employer plans and state-mandated fertility benefits may cover parts of IVF, but many exclude donor compensation, agency fees, donor medications, genetic testing, or cryostorage. Even when IVF is covered, donor egg-related expenses may be treated differently. Intended parents should request a detailed benefits review and ask specifically about donor eggs, embryo creation, embryo transfer, medications, anesthesia, monitoring, and storage.

Financing options may include fertility loans, clinic payment plans, employer fertility benefits, health savings accounts for eligible medical expenses, grants, shared-risk programs, or refund programs. Read refund program terms carefully; eligibility may depend on age, medical history, use of specific clinics, number of transfers, and embryo testing decisions. Lower monthly payments can be helpful, but intended parents should understand the total repayment cost.

Ethical Issues and the Future Child

Egg donation involves three sets of interests: the donor, the intended parents, and the future child. Ethical care respects all three. Donors deserve informed consent, fair treatment, medical safety, privacy, and freedom from coercion. Intended parents deserve accurate information, legal security, and compassionate support. Donor-conceived children deserve thoughtful consideration of their future identity, medical history access, and ability to ask questions about their origins.

Many families wonder whether to tell a child they were conceived with donor eggs. Professional guidance increasingly supports early, age-appropriate disclosure. Children who grow up with the information often experience it as a normal part of their story, whereas late or accidental disclosure can feel destabilizing. Books, counselors, and donor conception support organizations can help parents find comfortable language.

Medical history updates are another ethical issue. A donor may develop a health condition years later that could matter to offspring, or a donor-conceived child may develop a condition relevant to the donor or other families. Ask agencies, clinics, and banks how they handle updates and whether they maintain long-term contact channels.

Practical Timeline for Donor Egg IVF

A frozen donor egg cycle may move relatively quickly once the intended parents choose an egg lot and complete sperm testing, legal consent, and clinic preparation. Some families can begin fertilization planning within weeks, depending on clinic scheduling and shipping logistics. Embryo transfer may occur in a later cycle after embryos are created and the uterus or gestational carrier is prepared.

A fresh donor cycle often takes longer. Searching for a donor may take days or months. Screening can take several weeks. Legal contracts may take one to three weeks or longer depending on attorney availability and negotiations. The donor’s stimulation cycle typically lasts around two weeks once medications begin, but scheduling depends on menstrual timing, clinic calendars, and medication protocols. Overall, a fresh donor match may take two to four months or more from selection to retrieval, and sometimes longer if complications, travel, or rematching occur.

A Balanced Checklist for Selecting a Trusted Match

Common Mistakes to Avoid

One common mistake is choosing a donor based only on photos or academic background before reviewing medical and genetic information. Another is assuming that a young donor automatically guarantees success. While donor age is important, embryo development still depends on egg competence, sperm quality, and laboratory performance. A third mistake is underestimating costs. Donor egg IVF often includes multiple professional services, and a low initial quote can become expensive if essential items are excluded.

Some intended parents also overlook the future child’s perspective. A donor who seems ideal today may be difficult to contact later if medical questions arise. Consider whether identity-release or medical update options matter to your family. Finally, do not skip independent legal counsel, even for a known donor. Legal clarity is not a sign of distrust; it is a foundation for protecting everyone involved.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is egg donation legal in the USA?

Yes, egg donation is legal in the United States, but laws and parentage procedures vary by state. Medical practice is governed by federal tissue regulations, state laws, clinic policies, and professional guidelines. Intended parents and donors should use attorneys experienced in reproductive law.

How old are most egg donors?

Most programs prefer donors between 21 and 34 years old, often with a preference for donors in their twenties. The age range is designed to balance donor maturity, informed consent, and reproductive potential.

Can a donor be rejected after being selected?

Yes. A donor may be disqualified because of medical findings, genetic concerns, psychological evaluation, infectious disease screening, poor ovarian reserve, scheduling issues, or personal withdrawal. This is why refund and rematch policies are important.

Are donor eggs guaranteed to result in a baby?

No. Donor eggs can offer strong success rates, especially compared with age-related infertility using older eggs, but there is no guarantee. Fertilization, embryo development, implantation, pregnancy, and live birth all involve biological uncertainty.

Should intended parents choose fresh or frozen donor eggs?

Fresh eggs may provide more eggs and more sibling-planning potential, but they are more complex and often more expensive. Frozen eggs are faster and more predictable in timing, but the egg lot may be smaller. The best choice depends on budget, timeline, desired family size, and clinic recommendations.

Can the child contact the donor in the future?

It depends on the arrangement. Some donations are anonymous, some are open, and some are identity-release when the child reaches adulthood. Because DNA testing can make anonymity uncertain, families should discuss future contact carefully before choosing a donor.

Final Thoughts

Finding an egg donor in the USA is a deeply personal process that combines science, ethics, law, and emotion. A trusted match is not simply the donor with the most attractive profile or the fastest availability. It is a donor who has been properly screened, ethically supported, legally protected, and thoughtfully matched to the intended parents’ medical needs and family values.

The best starting point is a reputable fertility clinic with experience in donor egg IVF. From there, intended parents can decide whether to use a clinic donor pool, an egg donor agency, a frozen egg bank, or a known donor. Take time to compare costs, understand screening, ask direct questions, and seek legal and genetic counseling when needed. With careful planning and the right professional team, donor egg IVF can offer a hopeful and well-supported path to parenthood.